Which of the Following Means Relative Equal Combining of the Media of One or More Arts?

Line

A line is defined every bit a mark that connects the space between two points, taking any form forth the way.

Learning Objectives

Compare and dissimilarity different uses of line in fine art

Key Takeaways

Key Points

• Actual lines are lines that are physically present, existing as solid connections between one or more points.
• Implied line refers to the path that the viewer 'south eye takes every bit it follows shapes, colors, and forms forth any given path.
• Due southtraight or classic lines provide stability and construction to a composition and can be vertical, horizontal, or diagonal on a work'southward surface.
• Expressive lines refer to curved marks that increment the sense of dynamism of a work of fine art.
• The outline or contour lines create a border or path effectually the edge of a shape, thereby outlining and defining it. "Cross contour lines" delineate differences in the features of a surface.
• Hatch lines are a serial of short lines repeated in intervals, typically in a single direction, and are used to add shading and texture to surfaces, while cross-hatch lines provide additional texture and tone to the epitome surface and tin be oriented in whatever direction.

Primal Terms

• texture:The experience or shape of a surface or substance; the smoothness, roughness, softness, etc. of something.
• cross-hatching:A method of showing shading by ways of multiple minor lines that intersect.
• line:A path through two or more points.

The line is an essential element of art, divers as a mark that connects the space between two points, taking whatsoever form along the way. Lines are used most often to define shape in two-dimensional works and could exist chosen the most ancient, as well as the most universal, forms of mark making.

There are many different types of lines, all characterized by their lengths existence greater than their width, as well every bit by the paths that they take. Depending on how they are used, lines aid to determine the movement, direction, and energy of a work of art. The quality of a line refers to the grapheme that is presented by a line in order to animate a surface to varying degrees.

Actual lines are lines that are physically nowadays, existing as solid connections between one or more points, while implied lines refer to the path that the viewer's eye takes as information technology follows shape, color, and course within an art work. Implied lines give works of art a sense of motion and proceed the viewer engaged in a composition. We can see numerous implied lines in Jacques-Louis David'due south Oath of the Horatii, connecting the figures and actions of the piece past leading the middle of the viewer through the unfolding drama.

Jacques-Louis David, Oath of the Horatii, 1784: Many implied lines connect the figures and activeness of the piece by leading the eye of the viewer through the unfolding drama.

Direct or classic lines add stability and structure to a limerick and tin be vertical, horizontal, or diagonal on the surface of the work. Expressive lines refer to curved marks that increase the sense of dynamism of a work of art. These types of lines ofttimes follow an undetermined path of sinuous curves. The outline or profile lines create a border or path around the edge of a shape, thereby outlining and defining it. Cross profile lines delineate differences in the features of a surface and tin can give the illusion of 3 dimensions or a sense of form or shading.

Hatch lines are a series of brusk lines repeated in intervals, typically in a unmarried direction, and are used to add together shading and texture to surfaces. Cross-hatch lines provide additional texture and tone to the prototype surface and can exist oriented in any direction. Layers of cantankerous-hatching can add rich texture and book to image surfaces.

Lite and Value

Value refers to the use of light and dark in art.

Learning Objectives

Explicate the artistic use of light and nighttime (as well known as "value")

Central Takeaways

Key Points

• In painting, value changes are achieved past calculation blackness or white to a color.
• Value in art is as well sometimes referred to as " tint " for light hues and "shade" for dark hues.
• Values near the lighter terminate of the spectrum are termed "high-keyed" while those on the darker end are chosen "depression-keyed."
• In two-dimensional art works, the use of value tin help to give a shape the illusion of mass or volume .
• Chiaroscuro was a common technique in Baroque painting and refers to clear tonal contrasts exemplified by very high-keyed whites, placed direct against very low-keyed darks.

Fundamental Terms

• chiaroscuro:An artistic technique popularized during the Renaissance, referring to the use of exaggerated light contrasts in social club to create the illusion of volume.

The employ of light and nighttime in art is called value. Value tin be subdivided into tint (lite hues) and shade (dark hues). In painting, which uses subtractive color, value changes are achieved by adding black or white to a colour. Artists may also utilise shading, which refers to a more subtle manipulation of value. The value scale is used to show the standard variations in tones . Values near the lighter end of the spectrum are termed high-keyed, while those on the darker end are low-keyed.

Value scale: The value scale represents different degrees of low-cal used in artwork.

In two-dimensional artworks, the utilize of value can help to requite a shape the illusion of mass or book. Information technology will as well give the entire composition a sense of lighting. High contrast refers to the placing of lighter areas directly against much darker ones, so their departure is showcased, creating a dramatic outcome. High dissimilarity likewise refers to the presence of more blacks than white or grey. Low-contrast images upshot from placing mid-range values together and then at that place is non much visible difference betwixt them, creating a more subtle mood.

In Baroque painting, the technique of chiaroscuro was used to produce highly dramatic effects in art. Chiaroscuro, which ways literally "lite-dark" in Italian, refers to clear tonal contrasts exemplified by very high-keyed whites, placed directly against very low-keyed darks. Candlelit scenes were mutual in Baroque painting as they effectively produced this dramatic type of upshot. Caravaggio used a high contrast palette in such works as The Denial of St. Peter to create his expressive chiaroscuro scene.

Caravaggio, The Denial of St. Peter, 1610: Caravaggio's The Deprival of St. Peter is an first-class example of how low-cal can exist manipulated in artwork.

Color

In the visual arts, color theory is a body of practical guidance to color mixing and the visual impacts of specific color combinations.

Learning Objectives

Express the virtually of import elements of colour theory and artists' utilise of colour

Cardinal Takeaways

Cardinal Points

• Color theory start appeared in the 17th century, when Isaac Newton discovered that white light could be passed through a prism and divided into the full spectrum of colors.
• The spectrum of colors independent in white light are red, orangish, yellowish, green, blue, indigo , and violet.
• Color theory divides color into the " primary colors " of red, yellow, and blueish, which cannot exist mixed from other pigments, and the "secondary colors" of green, orange, and violet, which upshot from different combinations of the primary colors.
• Main and secondary colors are combined in various mixtures to create tertiary colors.
• Complementary colors are plant opposite each other on the color wheel and represent the strongest dissimilarity for those particular two colors.

Cardinal Terms

• complementary colour:A colour which is regarded every bit the opposite of another on the color wheel (i.east., red and green, yellow and imperial, and orange and blueish).
• value:The relative darkness or lightness of a color in a specific area of a painting or other visual art.
• primary color:Any of three colors which, when added to or subtracted from others in different amounts, can generate all other colors.
• tint:A color considered with reference to other very like colors. Ruddy and blueish are dissimilar colors, but two shades of cerise are different tints.
• gradation:A passing by small degrees from one tone or shade, as of color, to another.
• hue:A color, or shade of colour.

Color is a cardinal artistic element which refers to the employ of hue in art and pattern. It is the most complex of the elements considering of the broad array of combinations inherent to it. Color theory beginning appeared in the 17th century when Isaac Newton discovered that white lite could be passed through a prism and divided into the total spectrum of colors. The spectrum of colors contained in white light are, in gild: ruby, orangish, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet.

Color theory subdivides color into the "principal colors" of red, yellow, and blue, which cannot be mixed from other pigments; and the "secondary colors" of light-green, orangish and violet, which upshot from different combinations of the primary colors. Master and secondary colors are combined in various mixtures to create "3rd colors." Color theory is centered around the colour wheel, a diagram that shows the relationship of the various colors to each other .

Color wheel: The color bicycle is a diagram that shows the relationship of the various colors to each other.

Colour " value " refers to the relative lightness or darkness of a colour. In improver, "tint" and "shade" are of import aspects of color theory and result from lighter and darker variations in value, respectively. "Tone" refers to the gradation or subtle changes of a colour on a lighter or darker scale. "Saturation" refers to the intensity of a color.

Additive and Subtractive Color

Condiment color is color created by mixing red, greenish, and blueish lights. Goggle box screens, for example, use additive colour as they are made up of the primary colors of red, bluish and green (RGB). Subtractive colour,  or "process color," works as the contrary of additive color and the main colors become cyan, magenta, yellowish, and black (CMYK). Common applications of subtractive color tin can be constitute in press and photography.

Complementary Colour

Complementary colors can be plant directly contrary each other on the color wheel (purple and yellow, green and reddish, orange and blueish). When placed next to each other, these pairs create the strongest contrast for those particular two colors.

Warm and Cool Color

The distinction between warm and cool colors has been of import since at least the late 18th century. The dissimilarity, as traced by etymologies in the Oxford English Dictionary, seems related to the observed contrast in landscape light, between the "warm" colors associated with daylight or sunset and the "cool" colors associated with a grey or overcast day. Warm colors are the hues from red through yellow, browns and tans included. Cool colors, on the other paw, are the hues from blue greenish through blue violet, with most grays included. Colour theory has described perceptual and psychological effects to this contrast. Warm colors are said to advance or appear more active in a painting, while cool colors tend to recede. Used in interior design or style, warm colors are said to arouse or stimulate the viewer , while cool colors calm and relax.

Texture

Texture refers to the tactile quality of the surface of an art object.

Learning Objectives

Recognize the employ of texture in art

Key Takeaways

Key Points

• Visual texture refers to an implied sense of texture that the artist creates through the use of diverse artistic elements such as line , shading, and color.
• Actual texture refers to the physical rendering or the real surface qualities we can notice by touching an object.
• Visible brushstrokes and different amounts of paint volition create a concrete texture that tin add to the expressiveness of a painting and draw attention to specific areas inside information technology.
• It is possible for an artwork to contain numerous visual textures merely yet remain smooth to the bear on.

Key Terms

• tactile:Tangible; perceptible to the sense of touch.

Texture

Texture in art stimulates the senses of sight and bear upon and refers to the tactile quality of the surface of the art. It is based on the perceived texture of the canvas or surface, which includes the awarding of the pigment. In the context of artwork, there are two types of texture: visual and actual. Visual texture refers to an unsaid sense of texture that the artist creates through the use of diverse artistic elements such as line, shading and color. Actual texture refers to the concrete rendering or the real surface qualities we can notice past touching an object, such every bit pigment application or 3-dimensional art.

It is possible for an artwork to comprise numerous visual textures, yet still remain smooth to the touch. Have for case Realist or Illusionist works, which rely on the heavy utilise of paint and varnish, still maintain an utterly smooth surface. In Jan Van Eyck's painting "The Virgin of Chancellor Rolin" we tin can notice a peachy deal of texture in the wearable and robes particularly, while the surface of the piece of work remains very smooth .

Jan van Eyck, The Virgin of Chancellor Rolin, 1435: The Virgin of Chancellor Rolin has a great bargain of texture in the clothing and robes, but the bodily surface of the piece of work is very smooth.

Paintings often use actual texture also, which we tin can observe in the concrete application of paint. Visible brushstrokes and dissimilar amounts of paint volition create a texture that adds to the expressiveness of a painting and draw attending to specific areas within it. The artist Vincent van Gogh is known to have used a great deal of actual texture in his paintings, noticeable in the thick application of paint in such paintings equally Starry Night.

Vincent van Gogh, The Starry Night, 1889: The Starry Nighttime contains a great deal of actual texture through the thick application of pigment.

Shape and Volume

Shape refers to an area in a two-dimensional space that is defined by edges; volume is three-dimensional, exhibiting height, width, and depth.

Learning Objectives

Define shape and volume and place ways they are represented in fine art

Key Takeaways

Cardinal Points

• "Positive space " refers to the space of the defined shape or figure.
• "Negative space" refers to the space that exists effectually and betwixt ane or more shapes.
• A " plane " in fine art refers to any surface expanse inside space.
• " Class " is a concept that is related to shape and can exist created by combining two or more than shapes, resulting in a three-dimensional shape.
• Art makes apply of both bodily and unsaid volume .
• Shape, volume, and infinite, whether actual or unsaid, are the footing of the perception of reality.

Fundamental Terms

• class:The shape or visible structure of an artistic expression.
• volume:A unit of three-dimensional measure of space that comprises a length, a width, and a superlative.
• plane:A flat surface extending infinitely in all directions (e.g., horizontal or vertical plane).

Shape refers to an area in two-dimensional space that is defined by edges. Shapes are, by definition, always flat in nature and can be geometric (e.g., a circle, square, or pyramid) or organic (e.k., a leaf or a chair). Shapes tin be created by placing two different textures , or shape-groups, side by side to each other, thereby creating an enclosed expanse, such every bit a painting of an object floating in h2o.

"Positive infinite" refers to the space of the defined shape, or effigy. Typically, the positive infinite is the subject of an artwork. "Negative space" refers to the infinite that exists around and betwixt i or more shapes. Positive and negative space can go difficult to distinguish from each other in more than abstract works.

A "plane" refers to any expanse within space. In two-dimensional art, the " picture plane " is the apartment surface that the prototype is created upon, such as paper, canvas, or wood. 3-dimensional figures may be depicted on the apartment motion-picture show plane through the apply of the creative elements to imply depth and book, as seen in the painting Pocket-sized Bouquet of Flowers in a Ceramic Vase by January Brueghel the Elderberry.

Jan Brueghel the Elder, Pocket-sized Bouquet of Flowers in a Ceramic Vase, 1599: Three-dimensional figures may be depicted on the flat picture aeroplane through the utilize of the creative elements to imply depth and volume.

"Form" is a concept that is related to shape. Combining two or more shapes can create a iii-dimensional shape. Course is always considered 3-dimensional as it exhibits volume—or height, width, and depth. Art makes use of both bodily and implied volume.

While 3-dimensional forms, such equally sculpture, take volume inherently, book can also be faux, or implied, in a ii-dimensional work such as a painting. Shape, volume, and infinite—whether actual or unsaid—are the footing of the perception of reality.

Time and Motion

Motion, a principle of art, is a tool artists employ to organize the artistic elements in a work; information technology is employed in both static and time-based mediums.

Learning Objectives

Name some techniques and mediums used by artists to convey motion in both static and fourth dimension-based art forms

Key Takeaways

Key Points

• Techniques such equally scale and proportion are used to create the feeling of move or the passing of time in static a visual slice.
• The placement of a repeated chemical element in dissimilar surface area inside an artwork is some other way to imply motion and the passing of time.
• Visual experiments in time and motion were first produced in the mid-19th century, and the lensman Eadweard Muybridge is well-known for his sequential shots.
• The time-based mediums of picture show, video, kinetic sculpture , and performance fine art employ time and motion by their very definitions.

Key Terms

• frames per 2d:The number of times an imaging device produces unique consecutive images (frames) in ane 2nd. Abbreviation: FPS.
• static:Fixed in identify; having no motion.

Motion, or movement, is considered to exist i of the "principles of art"; that is, i of the tools artists use to organize the artistic elements in a piece of work of art. Motion is employed in both static and in fourth dimension-based mediums and can evidence a direct activity or the intended path for the viewer 'southward eye to follow through a piece.

Techniques such as scale and proportion are used to create the feeling of motility or the passing of time in static visual artwork. For example, on a apartment picture aeroplane , an image that is smaller and lighter colored than its surroundings will appear to be in the background. Another technique for implying move and/or time is the placement of a repeated element in different areas within an artwork.

Visual experiments in time and movement were showtime produced in the mid-19th century. The photographer Eadweard Muybridge is well known for his sequential shots of humans and animals walking, running, and jumping, which he displayed together to illustrate the move of his subjects. Marcel Duchamp's Nude Descending a Staircase, No. 2 exemplifies an accented feeling of motion from the upper left to lower right corner of the slice.

Marcel Duchamp, Nude Descending a Staircase, No. 2, 1912: This work represents Duchamp's conception of move and time.

While static art forms have the ability to imply or suggest time and motion, the time-based mediums of film, video, kinetic sculpture, and performance art demonstrate time and motion past their very definitions. Film is many static images that are apace passed through a lens. Video is essentially the same process, but digitally-based and with fewer frames per second . Performance fine art takes place in real time and makes use of existent people and objects, much similar theater. Kinetic art is art that moves, or depends on move, for its effect. All of these mediums use fourth dimension and motion every bit a cardinal attribute of their forms of expression.

Chance, Improvisation, and Spontaneity

Dadaism, Surrealism, and the Fluxus movement all relied on the elements of chance, improvisation, and spontaneity as tools for making art works.

Learning Objectives

Draw how Dadaism, Surrealism, and the Fluxus movement relied on chance, improvisation, and spontaneity

Primal Takeaways

Key Points

• Dadaists are known for their "automatic writing" or stream of consciousness writing, which highlights the creativity of the unconscious mind.
• Surrealist works, much like Dadaist works, oftentimes feature an element of surprise, unexpected juxtaposition , and tapping into the unconscious mind.
• Surrealists are known for having invented " exquisite corpse" cartoon.
• The Fluxus movement was known for its " happenings ," which were performance events or situations that could take place anywhere, in any class , and relied heavily on chance, improvisation, and audience participation.

Key Terms

• happening:A spontaneous or improvised consequence, specially one that involves audition participation.
• assemblage:A collection of things which have been gathered together..

Take a chance, improvisation, and spontaneity are elements that can be used to create art, or they can be the very purpose of the artwork itself. Any medium can employ these elements at any point within the artistic process.

Marcel Duchamp, Urinal, 1917: Marcel Duchamp's Urinal is an example of a "set-fabricated," which were objects that were purchased or found and so declared fine art.

Dadaism

Dadaism was an art move pop in Europe in the early 20th century. It was started by artists and poets in Zurich, Switzerland with stiff anti-war and left-leaning sentiments. The movement rejected logic and reason and instead prized irrationality, nonsense, and intuition. Marcel Duchamp was a dominant member of the Dadaist movement, known for exhibiting "ready-mades," which were objects that were purchased or found and then declared art.

Dadaists used what was readily bachelor to create what was termed an "assemblage," using items such as photographs, trash, stickers, bus passes, and notes. The work of the Dadaists involved run a risk, improvisation, and spontaneity to create art. They are known for using "automatic writing" or stream of consciousness writing, which oftentimes took nonsensical forms, but allowed for the opportunity of potentially surprising juxtapositions and unconscious creativity.

Surrealism

The Surrealist movement, which developed out of Dadaism primarily as a political movement, featured an element of surprise, unexpected juxtaposition and the tapping of the unconscious mind. Andre Breton, an important fellow member of the motion, wrote the Surrealist manifesto, defining information technology as follows:

"Surrealism, due north. Pure psychic automatism , by which one proposes to express, either verbally, in writing, or by any other style, the real functioning of thought. Dictation of thought in the absence of all control exercised past reason, exterior of all aesthetic and moral preoccupation. "

Like Dadaism earlier information technology, the Surrealist motility stressed the unimportance of reason and planning and instead relied heavily upon chance and surprise every bit a tool to harness the creativity of the unconscious mind. Surrealists are known for having invented "exquisite corpse" drawing, an exercise where words and images are collaboratively assembled, ane after some other. Many Surrealist techniques, including exquisite corpse drawing, allowed for the playful creation of art through assigning value to spontaneous production.

The Fluxus movement

The Fluxus motion of the 1960s was highly influenced by Dadaism. Fluxus was an international network of artists that skillfully blended together many different disciplines, and whose work was characterized past the use of an extreme do-information technology-yourself (DIY) aesthetic and heavily intermedia artworks. In add-on, Fluxus was known for its "happenings," which were multi-disciplinary performance events or situations that could take identify anywhere. Audience participation was essential in a happening, and therefore relied on a nifty deal of surprise and improvisation. Primal elements of happenings were often planned, but artists left room for improvisation, which eliminated the boundary between the artwork and the viewer , thus making the audience an important part of the fine art.

Inclusion of All Five Senses

The inclusion of the five human senses in a unmarried piece of work takes identify near often in installation and performance fine art.

Learning Objectives

Explain how installation and operation art include the five senses of the viewer

Fundamental Takeaways

Cardinal Points

• In contemporary art, it is quite common for piece of work to cater to the senses of sight, affect, and hearing, while it is somewhat less common to address smell and gustation.
• "Gesamtkunstwerk," or "total work of art," is a German language word that refers to an artwork that attempts to address all five human senses.
• Installation art is a genre of iii-dimensional artwork that is designed to transform the viewer 'due south perception of a space .
• Virtual reality is a term that refers to computer-simulated environments.

Central Terms

• happening:A spontaneous or improvised event, especially i that involves audience participation.
• virtual reality:A reality based in the estimator.

The inclusion of the 5 homo senses in a single piece of work takes place about frequently in installation and operation-based art. In addition, works that strive to include all senses at in one case by and large brand utilise of some form of interactivity, every bit the sense of taste clearly must involve the participation of the viewer. Historically, this attending to all senses was reserved to ritual and ceremony . In gimmicky art, it is quite common for work to cater to the senses of sight, bear upon, and hearing, while somewhat less mutual for fine art to address the senses of aroma and taste.

The German give-and-take "Gesamtkunstwerk," meaning "full work of art," refers to a genre of artwork that attempts to address all 5 human senses. The concept was brought to prominence by the German opera composer Richard Wagner in 1849. Wagner staged an opera that sought to unite the fine art forms, which he felt had become overly disparate. Wagner'southward operas paid great attention to every detail in lodge to achieve a country of total artistic immersion. "Gesamkunstwerk" is now an accepted English term relating to aesthetics , but has evolved from Wagner's definition to mean the inclusion of the five senses in fine art.

Installation fine art is a genre of three-dimensional artwork that is designed to transform the viewer's perception of a space. Embankment by Rachel Whiteread exemplifies this type of transformation. The term generally pertains to an interior space, while Land Art typically refers to an outdoor infinite, though there is some overlap betwixt these terms. The Fluxus movement of the 1960s is key to the evolution of installation and functioning art as mediums.

Rachel Whiteread, Beach, 2005: Whiteread's installation Embankment is a type of art designed to transform the viewer'due south perception of space.

"Virtual reality" is a term that refers to computer-simulated environments. Currently, about virtual reality environments are visual experiences, just some simulations include boosted sensory data. Immersive virtual reality has developed in recent years with the comeback of technology and is increasingly addressing the 5 senses within a virtual realm. Artists have been exploring the possibilities of these simulated and virtual realities with the expansion of the discipline of cyberarts, though what constitutes cyberart continues to be up for debate. Environments such every bit the virtual world of Second Life are mostly accepted, but whether or not video games should be considered art remains undecided.

Compositional Balance

Compositional balance refers to the placement of the artistic elements in relation to each other inside a work of art.

Learning Objectives

Categorize the elements of compositional residue in a piece of work of art

Key Takeaways

Key Points

• A harmonious compositional balance involves arranging elements so that no one office of a work overpowers or seems heavier than whatever other function.
• The iii most common types of compositional rest are symmetrical, asymmetrical, and radial .
• When counterbalanced, a composition appears stable and visually correct. Just as symmetry relates to aesthetic preference and reflects an intuitive sense for how things "should" appear, the overall balance of a given composition contributes to outside judgments of the work.

Key Terms

• radial:Arranged like rays that radiate from, or converge to, a common middle.
• symmetry:Exact correspondence on either side of a dividing line, plane, center, or axis. The satisfying arrangement of a balanced distribution of the elements of a whole.
• disproportion:Want of symmetry, or proportion between the parts of a affair, particularly want of bilateral symmetry. Lacking a common measure betwixt two objects or quantities; Incommensurability. That which causes something to not be symmetrical.

Compositional balance refers to the placement of the elements of fine art (color, form , line , shape, space , texture , and value) in relation to each other. When counterbalanced, a composition appears more stable and visually pleasing. But as symmetry relates to artful preference and reflects an intuitive sense for how things "should" appear, the overall residual of a given composition contributes to outside judgments of the work.

Creating a harmonious compositional residual involves arranging elements so that no single part of a work overpowers or seems heavier than whatever other part. The three virtually common types of compositional balance are symmetrical, asymmetrical, and radial.

Compositional balance: The three common types of balance are symmetric, asymmetric, and radial.

Symmetrical residue is the about stable, in a visual sense, and generally conveys a sense of harmonious or aesthetically pleasing proportionality. When both sides of an artwork on either side of the horizontal or vertical axis of the picture plane are the aforementioned in terms of the sense that is created by the arrangement of the elements of art, the work is said to showroom this type of balance. The opposite of symmetry is asymmetry .

Leonardo da Vinci, Vitruvian Man, 1487: Leonardo da Vinci's Vitruvian Homo is often used as a representation of symmetry in the human body and, past extension, the natural universe.

Asymmetry is defined as the absence of, or a violation of, the principles of symmetry. Examples of asymmetry appear normally in compages. Although pre-modern architectural styles tended to identify an emphasis on symmetry (except where extreme site atmospheric condition or historical developments atomic number 82 away from this classical ideal), modern and postmodern architects oftentimes used asymmetry every bit a pattern chemical element. For instance, while nearly bridges employ a symmetrical class due to intrinsic simplicities of design, analysis, fabrication, and economical use of materials, a number of modern bridges take deliberately departed from this, either in response to site-specific considerations or to create a dramatic design statement. .

Oakland Bay Bridge: Eastern span replacement of the San Francisco–Oakland Bay Bridge reflects asymmetrical architectural design.

Radial residue refers to circular elements in compositions. In classical geometry, a radius of a circumvolve or sphere is any line segment from its middle to its perimeter. Past extension, the radius of a circle or sphere is the length of any such segment, which is half the diameter. The radius may exist more than one-half the diameter, which is usually divers as the maximum distance between any ii points of the figure. The inradius of a geometric figure is usually the radius of the largest circle or sphere contained in it. The inner radius of a ring, tube or other hollow object is the radius of its cavity. The name "radial" or "radius" comes from Latin radius, meaning "ray" but also the spoke of a circular chariot wheel.

Rhythm

Artists use rhythm as a tool to guide the eye of the viewer through works of art.

Learning Objectives

Recognize and interpret the use of rhythm in a work of fine art

Key Takeaways

Key Points

• Rhythm may exist generally defined as a "motility marked past the regulated succession of stiff and weak elements, or of contrary or different weather" (Betimes. 1971).
• Rhythm may besides refer to visual presentation as "timed motility through space " (Jirousek 1995), and a common language of pattern unites rhythm with geometry.
• For example, placing a carmine spiral at the bottom left and height correct, for example, will cause the center to move from one screw, to the other, and everything in between. Information technology is indicating movement in the piece by the repetition of elements and, therefore, can make artwork seem active.

Primal Terms

• symmetry:Exact correspondence on either side of a dividing line, plane, center or centrality. The satisfying arrangement of a balanced distribution of the elements of a whole.

The principles of visual art are the rules, tools, and guidelines that artists apply to organize the elements of in a slice of artwork. When the principles and elements are successfully combined, they assist in creating an aesthetically pleasing or interesting work of art. While there is some variation among them, motion, unity, harmony, variety, balance, rhythm, emphasis, contrast , proportion, and pattern are commonly sited every bit principles of art.

Rhythm (from Greek rhythmos, "any regular recurring motion, symmetry " (Liddell and Scott 1996)) may be generally defined as a "movement marked by the regulated succession of stiff and weak elements, or of contrary or different weather" (Anon. 1971). This general meaning of regular recurrence or pattern in time may exist applied to a wide variety of cyclical natural phenomena having a periodicity or frequency of annihilation from microseconds to millions of years. In the performing arts, rhythm is the timing of events on a human calibration, of musical sounds and silences, of the steps of a dance, or the meter of spoken language and poetry. Rhythm may too refer to visual presentation, as "timed move through space" (Jirousek 1995), and a mutual language of design unites rhythm with geometry.

In a visual limerick , pattern and rhythm are generally expressed by showing consistency with colors or lines . For case, placing a red spiral at the bottom left and top right, for example, volition crusade the eye to motion from ane spiral, to the other, and and then to the space in between. The repetition of elements creates movement of the viewer 's eye and can, therefore, make the artwork feel active. Hilma af Klint's Svanen (The Swan) exemplifies the visual representation of rhythm using color and symmetry.

Hilma af Klint, Svanen (The Swan), 1914: Color and symmetry work together in this painting to guide the heart of the viewer in a item visual rhythm.

Proportion and Calibration

Proportion is a measurement of the size and quantity of elements within a limerick.

Learning Objectives

Apply the concept of proportion to different works of art

Cardinal Takeaways

Key Points

• Hierarchical proportion is a technique used in fine art, mostly in sculpture and painting, in which the artist uses unnatural proportion or scale to depict the relative importance of the figures in the artwork.
• Mathematically, proportion is the relation between elements and a whole. In compages, the whole is not simply a building but the set and setting of the site.
• Among the various ancient creative traditions, the harmonic proportions, homo proportions, cosmic orientations, various aspects of sacred geometry , and small whole-number ratios were all practical every bit role of the practice of architectural pattern.

Key Terms

• golden ratio:The irrational number (approximately i·618), usually denoted past the Greek letter φ (phi), which is equal to the sum of its own reciprocal and ane, or, equivalently, is such that the ratio of 1 to the number is equal to the ratio of its reciprocal to 1. Some twentieth-century artists and architects have proportioned their works to approximate this—especially in the form of the golden rectangle, in which the ratio of the longer side to the shorter equals this number—believing this proportion to be aesthetically pleasing.

Proportion is a measurement of the size and quantity of elements within a composition . Hierarchical proportion is a technique used in fine art, by and large in sculpture and painting, in which the creative person uses unnatural proportion or scale to draw the relative importance of the figures in the artwork. In ancient Egyptian art, for instance, gods and important political figures appear much larger than mutual people. Beginning with the Renaissance , artists recognized the connection betwixt proportion and perspective , and the illusion of three-dimensional space . Images of the human torso in exaggerated proportion were used to describe the reality an artist interpreted.

Depiction of Narmer from the Narmer Palette: Narmer, a Predynastic ruler, accompanied past men carrying the standards of diverse local gods. This piece demonstrates the ancient Egyptians' use of proportion, with Narmer appearing larger than the other figures depicted.

Mathematically, proportion is the relation between elements and a whole. In architecture, the whole is not only a building but the gear up and setting of the site. The things that make a building and its site "well shaped" include everything from the orientation of the site and the buildings on it, to the features of the grounds on which information technology is situated. Lite, shade, air current, top , and choice of materials all chronicle to a standard of architectural proportion.

Compages has oft used proportional systems to generate or constrain the forms considered suitable for inclusion in a building. In almost every edifice tradition, at that place is a system of mathematical relations which governs the relationships between aspects of the design. These systems of proportion are often quite unproblematic: whole number ratios or incommensurable ratios (such as the golden ratio) were determined using geometrical methods. More often than not, the goal of a proportional system is to produce a sense of coherence and harmony among the elements of a building.

Amongst the various ancient artistic traditions, the harmonic proportions, homo proportions, cosmic orientations, various aspects of sacred geometry, and small whole-number ratios were all applied as function of the practice of architectural design. For example, the Greek classical architectural orders are all proportioned rather than dimensioned or measured modules, because the earliest modules were not based on body parts and their spans (fingers, palms, hands, and feet), but rather on column diameters and the widths of arcades and fenestrations .

Temple of Portanus: The Greek Temple of Portanus is an example of classical Greek architecture with its tetrastyle portico of 4 Ionic columns.

Typically, one set of column diameter modules used for casework and architectural moldings by the Egyptians and Romans is based on the proportions of the palm and the finger, while another less frail module—used for door and window trim, tile work, and roofing in Mesopotamia and Greece—was based on the proportions of the mitt and the thumb.

Dating back to the Pythagoreans, at that place was an thought that proportions should be related to standards, and that the more full general and formulaic the standards, the better. This concept—that there should be beauty and elegance evidenced by a skillful composition of well understood elements—underlies mathematics, art, and architecture. The classical standards are a series of paired opposites designed to expand the dimensional constraints of harmony and proportion.

Space

Infinite in fine art can be defined as the area that exists between two identifiable points.

Learning Objectives

Ascertain space in art and list ways it is employed by artists

Key Takeaways

Key Points

• The organization of space is referred to as composition and is an essential component to any piece of work of art.
• The space of an artwork includes the background, foreground, and middle ground , too as the distance between, around, and inside things.
• There are two types of space: positive space and negative infinite.
• After spending hundreds of years developing linear perspective , Western artistic notions about the accurate delineation of space went through a radical shift at the beginning of the 20th century.
• Cubism and subsequent modernist movements represented an important shift in the apply of space inside Western art, which is still being felt today.

Cardinal Terms

• infinite:The distance or empty expanse betwixt things.
• Cubism:An artistic move in the early 20th century characterized by the delineation of natural forms as geometric structures of planes.

The organization of infinite in art is referred to as composition, and is an essential component of whatever work of art. Space tin be generally defined as the surface area that exists betwixt whatever two identifiable points.

Space is conceived of differently in each medium . The infinite in a painting, for case, includes the groundwork, foreground and middle ground, while three-dimensional infinite, like sculpture or installation , will involve the distance between, around, and inside points of the piece of work. Space is further categorized as positive or negative. "Positive space" tin can exist divers as the subject of an artwork, while "negative space" can be defined equally the space around the subject area.

Over the ages, space has been conceived of in various ways. Artists have devoted a great deal of time to experimenting with perspectives and degrees of flatness of the pictorial plane .

The perspective system has been a highly employed convention in Western art. Visually, it is an illusionist phenomenon, well suited to realism and the depiction of reality equally information technology appears. After spending hundreds of years developing linear perspective, Western creative conventions near the accurate depiction of infinite went through a radical shift at the starting time of the 20th century. The innovations of Cubism and subsequent modernist movements represented an of import shift in the use of infinite inside Western art, the affect of which is still being felt.

Pablo Picasso, Les Demoiselles d'Avignon, 1907: Les Demoiselles d'Avignon is an example of cubist art, which has a tendency to flatten the picture plane, and its use of abstruse shapes and irregular forms advise multiple points of view inside a single image.

2-Dimensional Space

Two-dimensional, or bi-dimensional, space is a geometric model of the planar projection of the concrete universe in which we live.

Learning Objectives

Discuss two-dimensional space in art and the concrete backdrop on which it is based

Central Takeaways

Primal Points

• In physical terms, dimension refers to the constituent structure of all infinite and its position in time.
• Drawing is a class of visual art that makes use of whatever number of instruments to mark a two-dimensional medium .
• About whatever dimensional form tin can be represented past some combination of the cube, sphere, cylinder, and cone. In one case these bones shapes take been assembled into a likeness, so the drawing tin be refined into a more accurate and polished form.

Cardinal Terms

• dimension:A single aspect of a given matter. A measure of spatial extent in a particular direction, such every bit pinnacle, width or breadth, or depth.
• 2-Dimensional:Existing in two dimensions. Non creating the illusion of depth.
• Planar:Of or pertaining to a plane. Flat, two-dimensional.

Two dimensional, or bi-dimensional, space is a geometric model of the planar projection of the physical universe in which we live. The two dimensions are usually chosen length and width. Both directions lie on the same plane . In physics, our bi-dimensional space is viewed every bit a planar representation of the space in which we movement.

Mathematical depiction of bi-dimensional space: Bi-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system.

In art limerick , drawing is a form of visual art that makes utilise of whatever number of drawing instruments to marker a two-dimensional medium (meaning that the object does not accept depth). Ane of the simplest and most efficient ways of communicating visual ideas, the medium has been a pop and fundamental means of public expression throughout human history. Additionally, the relative availability of bones drawing instruments makes drawing more universal than most other media.

Measuring the dimensions of a subject area while blocking in the drawing is an of import step in producing a realistic rendition of a subject. Tools such as a compass can be used to measure the angles of unlike sides. These angles tin can exist reproduced on the drawing surface and then rechecked to brand sure they are accurate. Another form of measurement is to compare the relative sizes of different parts of the field of study with each other. A finger placed at a betoken along the drawing implement can be used to compare that dimension with other parts of the epitome. A ruler tin be used both as a straightedge and a device to compute proportions. When attempting to describe a complicated shape such every bit a homo figure, information technology is helpful at first to represent the class with a ready of archaic shapes.

Well-nigh any dimensional form can exist represented by some combination of the cube, sphere, cylinder, and cone. One time these basic shapes take been assembled into a likeness, then the cartoon can exist refined into a more than accurate and polished course. The lines of the primitive shapes are removed and replaced past the final likeness. A more refined fine art of figure drawing relies upon the artist possessing a deep understanding of anatomy and the homo proportions. A trained artist is familiar with the skeleton construction, joint location, musculus placement, tendon movement, and how the different parts work together during motion. This allows the artist to render more natural poses that do not announced artificially potent. The artist is also familiar with how the proportions vary depending on the age of the subject, particularly when drawing a portrait.

Cartoon human figures: Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec's Madame Palmyre with Her Domestic dog, 1897.

Linear Perspective and Three-Dimensional Space

Perspective is an guess representation on a apartment surface of an paradigm as it is seen past the heart.

Learning Objectives

Explain perspective and its affect on art composition

Primal Takeaways

Key Points

• Systematic attempts to evolve a arrangement of perspective are ordinarily considered to take begun around the 5th century B.C. in the art of Ancient Greece.
• The primeval art paintings and drawings typically sized objects and characters hierarchically according to their spiritual or thematic importance, not their distance from the viewer .
• In Medieval Europe, the use and sophistication of attempts to convey distance increased steadily but without a ground in a systematic theory.
• By the Renaissance , nearly every artist in Italy used geometrical perspective in their paintings, both to portray depth and likewise equally a new and "of the moment" compositional method.

Key Terms

• curvilinear:Having bends; curved; formed past curved lines.
• horizon line:A horizontal line in perspective drawing, directly contrary the viewer's middle and often implied, that represents objects infinitely far away and determines the angle or perspective from which the viewer sees the work.
• vanishing point:The point in a perspective cartoon at which parallel lines receding from an observer seem to converge.
• Perspective:The technique of representing three-dimensional objects on a ii-dimensional surface.

In art, perspective is an guess representation on a apartment surface of an image as it is seen by the eye, calculated by assuming a detail vanishing point . Systematic attempts to evolve a arrangement of perspective are normally considered to have begun around the 5th century BCE in the art of Ancient Greece. By the later periods of antiquity , artists—especially those in less popular traditions—were well aware that distant objects could be shown smaller than those shut at hand for increased illusionism. But whether this convention was actually used in a work depended on many factors. Some of the paintings establish in the ruins of Pompeii show a remarkable realism and perspective for their time.

The earliest art paintings and drawings typically sized objects and characters hierarchically according to their spiritual or thematic importance, non their distance from the viewer. The most of import figures are often shown as the highest in a composition , also from hieratic motives, leading to the "vertical perspective" common in the art of Ancient Arab republic of egypt , where a group of "nearer" figures are shown beneath the larger effigy(due south).

The art of the Migration Period had no tradition of attempting compositions of large numbers of figures, and Early Medieval art was ho-hum and inconsistent in relearning the convention from classical models, though the process can be seen underway in Carolingian art. European Medieval artists were aware of the full general principle of varying the relative size of elements according to distance, and apply and sophistication of attempts to convey distance increased steadily during the period, merely without a ground in a systematic theory.

By the Renaissance, notwithstanding, near every artist in Italia used geometrical perspective in their paintings. Not but was this apply of perspective a way to portray depth, just information technology was also a new method of composing a painting. Paintings began to show a single, unified scene, rather than a combination of several. For a while, perspective remained the domain of Florence. Gradually, and partly through the movement of academies of the arts, the Italian techniques became part of the training of artists across Europe and, afterward, other parts of the world.

Perspective in Renaissance Painting: Pietro Perugino's usage of perspective in this fresco at the Sistine Chapel (1481–82) helped bring the Renaissance to Rome.

A drawing has 1-signal perspective when it contains only ane vanishing point on the horizon line . This type of perspective is typically used for images of roads, railway tracks, hallways, or buildings viewed and so that the front is direct facing the viewer. Whatsoever objects that are made upward of lines either direct parallel with the viewer's line of sight or directly perpendicular (the railroad slats) can be represented with one-point perspective. These parallel lines converge at the vanishing point.

Two-point perspective tin be used to describe the same objects as 1-point perspective, but rotated—such every bit looking at the corner of a house, or looking at 2 forked roads compress into the distance. In looking at a firm from the corner, for instance, 1 wall would recede towards one vanishing point and the other wall would recede towards the opposite vanishing signal.

Three-point perspective is used for buildings depicted from above or below. In addition to the ii vanishing points from before, one for each wall, there is now a 3rd 1 for how those walls recede into the basis . This third vanishing indicate would be below the ground.

Iv-point perspective is the curvilinear variant of two-point perspective. The resulting elongated frame tin exist used both horizontally and vertically. Like all other foreshortened variants of perspective, four-betoken perspective starts off with a horizon line, followed by four equally spaced vanishing points to delineate four vertical lines. Because vanishing points exist but when parallel lines are present in the scene, a perspective with no vanishing points ("null-signal") occurs if the viewer is observing a non-rectilinear scene. The most mutual example of a nonlinear scene is a natural scene (e.g., a mountain range), which frequently does non contain any parallel lines. A perspective without vanishing points can still create a sense of depth.

Distortions of Space and Foreshortening

Baloney is used to create various representations of space in two-dimensional works of fine art.

Learning Objectives

Identify how distortion is both employed and avoided in works of art

Central Takeaways

Key Points

• Perspective projection distortion is the inevitable misrepresentation of iii-dimensional infinite when fatigued or "projected" onto a 2-dimensional surface. Information technology is impossible to accurately depict three-dimensional reality on a two-dimensional aeroplane .
• However, there are several constructs available which allow for seemingly accurate representation. Perspective projection can be used to mirror how the eye sees by the use of one or more vanishing points .
• Although distortion can exist irregular or follow many patterns, the almost commonly encountered distortions in composition , particularly in photography, are radially symmetric, or approximately so, arising from the symmetry of a photographic lens.

Key Terms

• radial:Arranged like rays that radiate from, or converge into, a common centre
• projection:The image that a translucent object casts onto another object.
• foreshortening:A technique for creating the appearance that the object of a drawing is extending into infinite by shortening the lines with which that object is fatigued.

A distortion is the alteration of the original shape (or other characteristic) of an object, image, audio, or other form of information or representation. Baloney can be wanted or unwanted by the artist. Distortion is unremarkably unwanted when information technology concerns physical deposition of a work. However, information technology is more commonly referred to in terms of perspective, where it is employed to create realistic representations of space in two-dimensional works of art.

Perspective Projection Baloney

Perspective projection distortion is the inevitable misrepresentation of three-dimensional space when drawn or "projected" onto a two-dimensional surface. It is impossible to accurately describe three-dimensional reality on a two-dimensional airplane. However, there are several constructs bachelor that allow for seemingly accurate representation. The almost common of these is perspective project. Perspective project can exist used to mirror how the center sees by making apply of one or more vanishing points.

Giotto, Lamentation (The Mourning of Christ), 1305–1306: Giotto is one of the most notable pre-Renaissance artists to recognize distortion on two-dimensional planes.

Foreshortening

Foreshortening is the visual effect or optical illusion that causes an object or distance to appear shorter than it actually is because it is angled toward the viewer . Although foreshortening is an important element in fine art where visual perspective is existence depicted, foreshortening occurs in other types of two-dimensional representations of three-dimensional scenes, such every bit oblique parallel projection drawings.

The physiological basis of visual foreshortening was undefined until the twelvemonth 1000 when the Arabian mathematician and philosopher, Alhazen, in his Perspectiva, first explained that light projects conically into the heart. A method for presenting foreshortened geometry systematically onto a airplane surface was unknown for another 300 years. The artist Giotto may take been the starting time to recognize that the paradigm beheld by the middle is distorted: to the eye, parallel lines appear to intersect (like the distant edges of a path or road), whereas in "undistorted" nature, they exercise not. In many of Giotto'south paintings, perspective is employed to achieve various distortion furnishings.

Foreshortening: This painting illustrates Melozzo da Forlì's usage of upward foreshortening in his frescoes at The Basilica della Santa Casa.

Baloney in Photography

In photography, the projection mechanism is calorie-free reflected from an object. To execute a drawing using perspective project, projectors emanate from all points of an object and intersect at a station point. These projectors intersect with an imaginary plane of projection and an image is created on the plane past the points of intersection. The resulting paradigm on the projection plane reproduces the prototype of the object every bit it is beheld from the station indicate.

Radial distortion can usually be classified as one of ii main types: barrel distortion and pincushion baloney. Barrel distortion occurs when prototype magnification decreases with distance from the optical centrality. The apparent effect is that of an image which has been mapped effectually a sphere (or barrel). Fisheye lenses, which take hemispherical views, employ this type of distortion as a way to map an infinitely wide object plane into a finite image expanse.

On the other hand, in pincushion distortion, the image magnification increases with the altitude from the optical axis. The visible consequence is that lines that do not go through the center of the image are bowed inwards, towards the center of the epitome, like a pincushion. A certain amount of pincushion distortion is often found with visual optical instruments (i.east., binoculars), where it serves to eliminate the earth upshot.

Cylindrical perspective is a form of distortion acquired by fisheye and panoramic lenses, which reproduce straight horizontal lines above and beneath the lens axis level every bit curved, while reproducing direct horizontal lines on lens axis level as direct. This is also a common feature of wide-bending anamorphic lenses of less than 40mm focal length in cinematography. Substantially it is just barrel distortion, simply only in the horizontal plane. It is an artifact of the squeezing procedure that anamorphic lenses do to fit widescreen images onto standard-width flick.

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Source: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-arthistory/chapter/visual-elements/

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